In the shifting currents of global geopolitics, few alliances have captured as much attention and speculation as the deepening relationship between Africa and China. What began as cautious commercial engagement has matured into a full-blown strategic partnership, redefining power dynamics in the Global South. This evolving relationship is more than just a marriage of convenience; it is a profound reimagining of South-South cooperation.
According to the General Administration of Customs of China, trade between China and Africa reached a record $282.1 billion in 2023, up 7.5% year on year. China’s exports to Africa rose to $164.5 billion, while imports from Africa stood at $117.6 billion. Investment flows have mirrored this boom: Chinese foreign direct investment (FDI) stock in Africa hit $49.1 billion by the end of 2022, according to the China-Africa Economic and Trade Relationship Report. Meanwhile, more than 3,500 Chinese companies are now operating across the African continent, actively shaping sectors from energy to technology and from agriculture to aviation.
READ ALSO: President William Ruto’s State Visit to China Strengthening Ties
Infrastructure and the Promise of Transformation
China’s growing footprint in Africa is evidenced by rising infrastructure development. Across the continent, Chinese companies are erecting railways, highways, airports, and ports, often faster and at a scale previously unimaginable.
One vivid example is the Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway in Kenya, a $3.6 billion project funded predominantly by China Eximbank, designed to reduce travel time and boost regional trade. Similarly, Nigeria’s Abuja-Kaduna railway and Ethiopia’s Addis Ababa–Djibouti railway, both funded and built by Chinese entities, although a loan from China, have become tangible symbols of how Chinese engagement is impacting Africa.
Moreover, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has turned Africa into a critical junction in China’s vision of global connectivity. As of 2024, 52 African countries and the African Union Commission have signed BRI cooperation agreements, according to the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. These agreements aim to bridge Africa’s $130–$170 billion annual infrastructure financing gap.
Technology Transfer and New Frontiers
Beyond bricks and mortar, China is increasingly influencing Africa’s technological ascent. Through partnerships with firms like Huawei and ZTE, African nations are rapidly digitising telecommunications infrastructure. Huawei alone provides equipment for about 70% of Africa’s 4G networks, according to the Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
In Rwanda, for instance, Huawei partnered with the government to launch a national 4G LTE network, dramatically boosting internet penetration rates from 8% in 2014 to over 53% by 2023, according to the Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority. Similarly, in South Africa, China’s SunTech is powering solar projects, helping diversify energy sources in a region plagued by persistent power shortages.
However, concerns linger regarding the security and autonomy of these digital networks, especially amidst allegations of data breaches and surveillance capabilities tied to Chinese technology firms, allegations Beijing fiercely denies.
While the infrastructure boom and technology infusion are reshaping Africa, critics warn of a darker undertow: rising debt burdens and creeping sovereignty risks.
A 2023 report by the China Africa Research Initiative (CARI) at Johns Hopkins University revealed that between 2000 and 2022, China extended over $170 billion in loans to African countries. While China is not the largest lender to Africa (private bondholders and multilateral institutions combined hold a bigger share), China is the largest bilateral lender. Countries like Zambia, which defaulted on its sovereign debt in 2020, owed roughly $6 billion to Chinese entities, complicating its restructuring negotiations.
Similarly, Kenya’s public debt to China, particularly from the Mombasa-Nairobi railway project, has raised fears about potential asset seizures in case of default, although no such seizure has yet occurred. Critics point to the case of Sri Lanka’s Hambantota Port, where failure to meet loan obligations led to a 99-year lease to a Chinese company, as a cautionary tale Africa should heed.
In response to rising scrutiny, China has shifted strategy. In 2023, Chinese banks significantly curtailed new loan offers to Africa, focusing instead on smaller, commercially viable projects and public-private partnership (PPP) models, according to the Boston University Global Development Policy Centre.
Bridges Built, Bridges Burnt?
Ethiopia: Once hailed as a shining example of Sino-African cooperation, Ethiopia saw transformative growth with Chinese investment. However, tensions rose when repayment issues on large-scale projects strained government finances. Still, Ethiopia remains one of the largest African recipients of Chinese funding, emphasising the complex, layered nature of the relationship.
Ghana: In 2022, Ghana’s attempts to leverage future bauxite revenues against Chinese financing faced criticism from environmental groups and citizens concerned about deforestation in the Atewa Range. This highlights the delicate balancing act African governments face between economic development and environmental sustainability.
Angola: An early model of China’s “resources-for-infrastructure” approach, Angola repaid Chinese loans with oil exports. This enabled Angola’s rapid post-war reconstruction but left its economy vulnerable to oil price fluctuations, exposing the risks of such dependency-driven models.
Toward a More Equal Partnership?
Despite the challenges, it is simplistic to portray Africa as merely a passive player in the Africa-China narrative. Increasingly, African nations are asserting greater agency, negotiating deals more carefully, diversifying their partners, and pushing for technology and skills transfer as part of agreements.
The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), operational since 2021, has added new urgency to these efforts. With a market of 1.4 billion people and a combined GDP of $3.4 trillion, Africa is positioning itself not merely as a destination for foreign investment but as a dynamic node in global supply chains. Here, China sees opportunity, as well as a continent that is learning to negotiate with a sharper eye.
In a gesture reflecting this new mood, the 2021 Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) meetings emphasised “investment, not aid”, and China pledged to shift from large-scale loan-driven projects to private sector-led investments totalling $60 billion in areas like green energy, agriculture, and the digital economy.
The Africa-China relationship is not a simple story of exploitation or salvation. It is a dense, evolving narrative, rich with opportunities and perhaps, shadowed by risks. Africa and China must navigate the rhythm of mutual interests, potential missteps, and growing interdependence.
Africa’s challenge will be to sharpen its negotiating skills, diversify its economic partnerships, and insist on transparency and sustainability. China, for its part, must reckon with the long-term reputational stakes of its investments.
As the Global South reconfigures the architecture of international influence, the Africa-China nexus will remain a defining relationship, a barometer.
