Surveillance today is no longer confined to shadowy intelligence agencies or authoritarian regimes. Across the world, governments employ advanced digital tools to enhance security, improve governance, and protect citizens from threats like terrorism, cybercrime, and public disorder. The rapid evolution of technology has blurred traditional borders, making data flows and digital footprints central to modern oversight.
While these measures aim to safeguard societies, they also raise important questions about balancing security with fundamental human rights such as privacy, freedom of expression, and assembly. Africa’s digital transformation reflects this global dynamic but is shaped by the continent’s unique political, social, and economic realities. Digital tools offer unprecedented opportunities for inclusion and development, yet their use requires careful regulation to prevent misuse and ensure transparency in emerging democracies.
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Africa is investing significantly in surveillance infrastructure, often as part of broader efforts to modernize public security and urban management. Research by the Institute of Development Studies estimates that African governments allocate over $1 billion annually toward digital surveillance technologies. Nigeria, for example, has invested approximately $2.7 billion over the past decade in biometric systems, facial recognition, and mobile spyware aimed at enhancing public safety and improving service delivery.
The Middle East and Africa video surveillance market reached an estimated value of $4.32 billion in 2024, driven by rapid urbanisation and increasing security concerns. Countries like Morocco, Ghana, and Zambia have each committed more than $250 million to “safe city” projects with integrated surveillance systems designed to prevent crime and improve emergency response through AI-powered analytics and extensive camera networks. These investments highlight a growing shift toward digital governance tools intended to create safer and more resilient urban environments.
Surveillance in Action
Nigeria’s approach exemplifies the continent’s efforts to leverage technology for security and efficiency. The government has installed advanced CCTV systems with facial recognition, with Lagos mandating CCTV installation on every sixth and more buildings. Rwanda, often praised for its digital innovation and development progress, employs sophisticated surveillance tools to maintain public order and foster stability. Reports indicate the use of spyware for security purposes, reflecting a government priority to safeguard national peace and promote economic growth in a complex regional context.
Kenya has embraced electronic travel authorisation systems that collect detailed traveller information, helping to enhance border security and streamline customs processes. Although these measures raise valid data privacy discussions, they also represent efforts to modernize governance and combat illicit activities effectively.
Egypt’s substantial investment in “safe city” surveillance infrastructure aims to improve public safety across major urban areas. Meanwhile, Ethiopia’s recently enacted data protection laws mark a positive step toward balancing security needs with citizens’ privacy rights, even as the country navigates political challenges.
Uganda’s use of digital laws to regulate online activities reflects the tension between protecting national security and fostering a vibrant digital society. As in many countries, surveillance technologies support efforts to maintain order, although civil society continues to advocate for clear legal safeguards.
Legal Frameworks: Progress and Gaps
Africa’s legal landscape regarding data privacy and surveillance is rapidly evolving. As of 2024, 39 out of 55 African countries have enacted data protection laws. Botswana, Ethiopia, and Malawi, among others, have introduced reforms that seek to balance the legitimate security interests of states with the protection of individual rights.
Nonetheless, challenges remain. Many laws do not explicitly regulate state surveillance or provide comprehensive judicial oversight. Regulatory authorities often face capacity and independence constraints, which can limit effective enforcement. Strengthening these frameworks is crucial to ensure that surveillance remains a tool for public good without infringing on democratic freedoms.
Foreign Influence: Technology and Partnerships
China plays a prominent role in Africa’s surveillance landscape, with companies like Huawei and ZTE supplying infrastructure often linked to broader diplomatic and economic partnerships. These collaborations provide African countries with access to affordable and advanced technologies critical for modernisation and development.
Western firms from the US and Europe also contribute surveillance solutions and training to African governments, emphasising partnerships aimed at enhancing security and governance. While these foreign engagements introduce complexities around digital sovereignty and human rights standards, they also create opportunities for Africa to shape its own technology ecosystem through informed policy and strategic cooperation.
Civil Society: Advocating for Balance
African civil society organisations actively engage in protecting digital rights and promoting transparency. Groups like Privacy International and CIVICUS document surveillance trends and advocate for stronger privacy protections and government accountability.
Initiatives such as the European Union’s System for an Enabling Environment for Civil Society (EU SEE), launched in Johannesburg in 2025, underscore the growing global recognition of digital rights as integral to democratic development. These actors play a vital role in ensuring that surveillance technologies serve citizens’ interests without becoming instruments of repression.
What Laws Cover and What They Don’t
While data protection laws exist, many African countries’ frameworks still lack clear regulations on government surveillance powers. Judicial oversight mechanisms and redress options for privacy violations are often limited or underdeveloped, leaving citizens potentially vulnerable.
Bridging this gap is essential to create trust between governments and citizens, enabling the use of surveillance technology for legitimate security purposes while respecting democratic norms and individual freedoms.
Navigating a Digital Future
Africa stands at a crossroads in its digital evolution. Surveillance technologies offer powerful tools for enhancing governance, public safety, and development. When implemented transparently and regulated effectively, they can contribute significantly to building safer, more connected societies.
The challenge lies in crafting inclusive laws, strengthening oversight institutions, and fostering open dialogue that respects privacy and human rights. With continued collaboration among governments, civil society, and international partners, Africa can lead a model of digital innovation that protects both security and freedom.
As the continent watches the watchers, the test will be in ensuring that technology uplifts democratic values rather than undermines them, forging a future where progress and rights go hand in hand.
